IQ Scores

How they are changing and what the changes mean

AStudies from numerous countries suggest that IQ scores have been rising fast since at least the 1950s – enough to mean that someone with an IQ classed as average at that time could be labelled as having low intelligence today. However, psychologists disagree about what the upward trend in scores really means. Some researchers argue that people are not getting more intelligent overall, but just getting better at a particular sort of problem solving. Others say they have found echoes of rising IQ scores in 'real world' measures of intelligence. To confuse things still more, there are hints that the trend may be about to grind to a halt.

BJames Flynn, a professor of political science, first showed that IQ scores were rising in the mid-1980s, and became famous after others dubbed the pattern he had observed the 'Flynn effect'. In a landmark paper he made detailed comparisons across fourteen countries of trends in the results of tests that measure reasoning power. Overall, these showed a real growth in scores of up to 25 points in a generation. To find out more, Flynn went on to look at scores for each type of reasoning that IQ tests set out to measure, such as verbal, numerical and visuo-spatial. This last test category usually includes 'Raven's matrices' – sequential patterns with one piece missing. The candidate has to choose, from a set of alternatives, which shape to put in the empty space. When Flynn took a closer look at the scores, the pattern was clear. The strongest gains in almost every case were on Raven's matrices and similar tests, while verbal and arithmetical scores showed more modest rises. Since presenting his original paper, Flynn has looked at data from further countries and found the same upward trend, with the same skills responsible for most of the increase.

CFlynn feels that his eponymous effect is meaningful, but does not interpret it as evidence that people are becoming cleverer. Our grandparents were not retarded and we are not geniuses, he says. More likely we have simply developed the skills and habits of mind that make us better at solving abstract problems, and – just as importantly – we take such problems seriously. Flynn believes that demands of visuo-spatial abilities have grown because of TV, computers and cars, and also that in societies where intelligence has become something people focus on excessively, abstract problem-solving skills develop faster than other skills.

DOthers have different views about what might account for the increase in IQ scores. John Rust of the University of London suggests that it is not just an increase in visuo-spatial activities that is pushing up IQ scores. He believes that there are several factors, including the fact that, in more complex societies, people have to think harder to find solutions to problems they face. He also points out that if just one mind grasps a new concept, such as Einstein and the theory of relativity, it may then be easier for society in general to think in a more complex way. Others, such as experimental psychologist Robert Howard, argue that overall intelligence really has risen, helped by better nutrition, smaller families, wider access to education and other environmental changes.

EHoward's latest research has sent him on a different line of enquiry. Controversially, he now believes that the rise in IQ scores might have peaked in industrialised countries. To support this view, he cites data from Denmark. The Danish military still summons virtually all young men before a draft board to identify who is suitable to do military service. Since 1957, all 17-year-olds there have taken exactly the same qualifying IQ tests – including ones similar to Raven's matrices. Candidates must also be able to answer verbal questions such as 'Sun is to day as Moon is to ?', and number-series questions such as '2, 3, 5, 8, ?'. Results in these tests have been carefully analysed by Thomas Teasdale, a neuropsychologist. He found that during the 1960s and '70s, scores showed gains on a scale similar to those of other countries, but by the 1990s the rate of improvement had slowed right down to about one IQ point over the decade. Furthermore, the scores were improving only on the visuo-spatial questions; verbal and numerical performance was flattening out. Most intriguingly, however, scores from 1999 onwards show an overall downturn. One explanation might be that there is some absolute ceiling to people's abilities to perform these tasks, no matter how much the prevailing culture encourages them. However, as Teasdale points out, if such a ceiling had been reached, the test results should show scores pushing against it rather than actually falling.

FFlynn is keeping a close eye on the findings, but is not jumping to conclusions until data from other countries is available. However, he does wonder whether the conditions leading to dramatic improvements in mental ability disappear as societies become more prosperous. He points out that in human history, prosperity often led to decadence, and argues that the case of ancient Rome can be viewed as an illustration of this.

Practical Learning in the Classroom

A teacher describes a case study involving middle school students and traditional earthen architecture

AThe way we think about architecture in schools has come a long way. Once, studying architecture in the art class meant learning to appreciate great buildings art-history style, through slide presentations. In recent years, though, the American Institute of Architects has fostered the idea that the process of architectural design, not just the appreciation of architecture, is a beneficial aspect of the art curriculum.

BThe value of architectural design is that it is the concrete training ground for a broadly applicable creative process. Architectural training can help people design structures to meet needs. It can help farmers design crop rotations to meet needs. Furthermore, it provides hands-on experiences that reinforce learning in various other subjects, from math to social studies.

CIn the ongoing dialogue about architecture in the middle school art curriculum, many believe students should actually build the structures they design in their courses. Although the technology and expertise required of modern architecture can prohibit students from actually realizing their designs, traditional architectural materials and methods remain quite accessible to the art classroom. Traditional architectural materials, such as earth, clay and straw, are cheap, easy to work with and readily available. Further, when students participate in the construction or preservation of a traditional earthen structure in their local community, they engage in a form of experiential learning and they are motivated to invest in the project. This is evident in a case study of an adobe conservation project with middle school students in the town of Zuni, New Mexico, in the Southwestern United States.

DTraditional architecture reaches back to preindustrial America, when local resources and cultures produced structures in styles unique to each region. In New Mexico, examples of hand-built earthen structures still abound. The region has seen some decline in traditional architecture as industrialization has brought new building codes and materials; however, the traditional, non-industrial home, either preserved from earlier generations or newly built, remains in use. Traditional building materials and the land that supplies them are so accessible that handcrafting a house still remains feasible.

EThus, with no technical expertise and little cost, middle school students can participate in the construction or preservation of a traditional earthen structure. During the project, a student will get to know the materials, understand the chemistry, solve problems, work with classmates, and exercise muscles. The student can apply knowledge of design principles and the creative process while participating in a cooperative effort. But most significantly, this type of project-based activity motivates students to invest intellectually and emotionally in the outcome.

FThe town of Zuni, where I taught art, was surrounded by adobe construction, new and old. Behind our main high school building there was a one-room adobe structure which was once used for teaching. Now it served as a place where old furniture could be kept. I sent my class home with the oral history assignment to ask their family, friends and neighbors questions to find out about that building. From their research we compiled a sketchy history: it began as a kindergarten classroom; it later became an art classroom; now it was full of broken desks.

GThe building's design kept it relatively warm in the winter, even without heating, due to its broad south face, and it stayed cool in the summer due to its spacious, ventilated attic and massive earthen walls. Because of this, my students agreed it was worth preserving and were enthusiastic about helping. Preservationist Shalie Gasper arrived in the fall to help with an assessment of the building's needs. She recommended replacing the stucco that encased the original adobe walls with a traditional mud plaster. She showed us where to find local supplies of sand and clay soil for the plaster mix. We began work on the stucco removal in late fall. The next spring the students were ready to replaster. To teach the traditional skills, Gasper and other local specialists joined us. They gave my class three full mornings of intensive workshops on history and preservation as well as mud-plastering technique, and the building got a new coat of traditional mud plaster.

HSmall design-and-build projects such as this can be seen through to the finish when working with earth in the art curriculum. A simple landscape feature such as a wall, entryway, or arch can draw students into important aspects of design that involve the structure's interaction with people, the surrounding landscape, and natural elements. The same project may provide an opportunity to focus on the chemistry of soil or the structural dynamics of construction. Design goals might guide students to involve traditional forms, consider formal aspects, or integrate math skills of measuring and estimating.

IDuring our traditional architecture unit, the students realized that something old and almost forgotten is valuable and worth preserving. Many others in the community and around the country share this renewal of interest in traditional earthen technologies. It is the connection to a cultural heritage that interests some; the quality of living within massive, natural walls that attracts others; or for others, the sustainability of the process and the minimal energy spent in construction. The value of adobe in general is becoming more and more known, but little has been said about its value in the art curriculum until now. This experiment in adobe conservation with middle school students convinced me that traditional architecture deserves a place in the regular curriculum.